Introduction

Prosocial behaviors are voluntary acts aimed to benefit another and are recognized as critical for social functioning across the lifespan (Carlo et al., 2015; Eisenberg et al., 2006, 2015). These behaviors originate in early childhood and continue to evolve through adolescence into emerging adulthood (Warneken, 2016). Empirical evidence links prosocial behavior with a range of positive developmental outcomes, such as enhanced self-esteem (Bosacki, 2003), improved academic achievement (Welsh et al., 2001), stronger emotional adjustment (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998), and more sophisticated moral reasoning (Miller et al., 1996).

The present study integrates several factors that may contribute to prosocial development during emerging adulthood: empathy, motivation, academic achievement, and gender. These variables are organized under the theoretical framework of Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which proposes that the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—is essential for psychological growth, well-being, and internalization of social behaviors (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Empathy, for example, is closely tied to relatedness and is thought to facilitate socially motivated behavior, while academic success may reflect cognitive competencies that support the execution of such behavior. Gender differences, often observed in prosocial outcomes, may also be interpreted through the lens of differing socialization practices that interact with motivational needs.

Given the overall paucity of research in this area, additional study is needed to understand better how the unique characteristics of emerging adulthood may play a role in their basic psychological need satisfaction, empathy, and prosocial behavior. By explicitly linking these constructs under SDT, this study aims to advance an integrative perspective on the motivational and contextual factors that promote prosociality in young adults.

Empathy

Empathy is a multidimensional construct encompassing both affective and cognitive components that enable individuals to understand and resonate with others' emotional states (Cuff et al., 2016). Affective empathy involves vicariously experiencing others’ feelings (Bryant, 1982; Cooley, 1998), while cognitive empathy refers to recognizing and intellectually processing others’ emotions and perspectives (Duan & Hill, 1996; Dymond, 1949).

Rather than focusing on definitional history, current research emphasizes empathy's functional role in motivating socially beneficial behaviors. Empathy is closely tied to emotion regulation and perspective taking, both of which support prosocial outcomes (Miller et al., 1996). A consistent body of evidence shows moderate to strong associations between empathy and prosocial behavior across development (Eisenberg et al., 2006; Eisenberg & Miller, 1987). Empathy not only enhances responsiveness to others' needs but also acts as a catalyst for internalizing prosocial values (Batson, 1991; De Waal, 2008).

Importantly, recent research calls attention to the motivational mechanisms linking empathy to action. While affective empathy may create the emotional impetus to help, it is often cognitive empathy and self-determined motivation that sustain helping behavior (Pavey et al., 2011). Furthermore, empathy's impact may be amplified when basic psychological needs—such as relatedness—are met, suggesting a dynamic interaction between emotional understanding and motivational fulfillment in driving prosocial engagement (Decety & Jackson, 2006; Eisenberg et al., 2006).

Motivation

Theoretical approaches have emphasized the influence of motivation on prosocial behaviors. For example, the functional approach highlights that people act prosocially when they have certain motives for these behaviors. They consist of social responsibility, comprehension development, ideals expression, and job advancement (Clary & Snyder, 1991). Drawing on Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), we infer that autonomous motivation may underlie prosocial behavior. Motivation is a key driver of behavior, influencing how individuals pursue and sustain goal-directed actions (Reeve, 2014) and guides our thoughts, emotions, and behavior (Mubeen & Reid, 2014) toward to a specific goal (Wu et al., 2022). It is essential for improving personal growth and experiencing high-quality learning (Deci et al., 1991). In ancient Greece, motivation was recognized within two themes: the will and bodily desires (Reeve, 2014). Later, drive theories (Hull, 1943) became popular in the field of motivation. Towards the end of the 20th century, Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) was introduced by Deci and Ryanwho are well-known psychologists interested in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (self-determined and non-self-determined), and amotivation. SDT is an organismic-dialectical theory, accepts individuals as proactive selves (Deci et al., 1991), and examines motivation and behavior according to social-contextual factors that facilitate or impede individual flourishing (Ryan & Deci, 2017).SDT indicates that humans are driven by three fundamental psychological needs to grow and change: the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. These basic psychological needs are vital to predict whether the social environment will support autonomous behavior (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004).

The need for autonomy means behaving from a sense of self but does not mean being separate from others (Deci & Ryan, 2000).When a behavior is autonomous, individuals internally and externally feel independent (Ryan & Deci, 2017). The need for autonomy relates to the experience of psychological independence and is assigned by the degree of external pressure (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Instead of following someone else or an external force, individuals choose a certain course of action, they prefer to be the ones to decide what they do (Reeve, 2014). The need for competence implies that people desire to communicate efficiently with their environment to be able to produce intended outcomes. The need for competence motivates individuals to look for optimal challenges, and when they participate in an activity with a level of complexity that is exactly suitable for their abilities, they are very interested in it. (Reeve, 2014). The need for relatedness refers to the sense of feeling attached to significant others (Núñez & León, 2015); in other words, the need to have close and warm relationships with others (Nowakowska, 2020). People operate better, are more resilient to pressure, and present fewer psychological challenges when their interpersonal interactions meet their need for relatedness, which makes relatedness a crucial motivational component (Cohen et al., 1986; Reeve, 2014). These three needs are universal, inherent, and necessary for physical and psychological human development (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Each of these requirements may serve as a goal in and of itself or as a means of achieving the developmental objectives of emerging adulthood (Nowakowska, 2020).

Academic Success

Prosocial behavior has been connected to success in academia and in the realm of social connections (Crick, 1996; Van der Graaff et al., 2018). The relationship between prosocial behavior and academic achievement has only been the subject of a small number of longitudinal studies, most of which have concentrated on teachers’ assessments of the prosocial behavior of elementary school students (e.g., Caprara et al., 2000). In later years, even after controlling for the stability of academic success, antisocial behavior, and distress, prosocial behavior in the sixth grade predicted higher academic grades concurrently and two years later (Wentzel, 1993; Wentzel & Caldwell, 1997). In emerging adulthood, few studies indicate that students’ GPA is related to their helping behaviors (Brouwer & Engels, 2022; Lyons & Bandura, 2017). Regarding empathy, the literature demonstrates a direct influence of empathy on academic achievement (Bonner & Aspy, 1984; Feshbach & Feshbach, 2009). Some studies indicate that empathy training for students resulted in heightened achievement (Feshbach & Konrad, 2001; Grigoropoulos, 2019). Another important point for students’ academic achievement is satisfaction of their basic psychological needs (Tian et al., 2014). There is some evidence that the overall satisfaction of basic needs is positively connected with students' academic achievement (e.g., Badri et al., 2014; Maralani et al., 2016). For instance, students’ psychological need satisfaction was a positive predictor of academic progress in primary school students (Marshik, 2010), secondary school students, (Badri et al., 2014; Duchesne et al., 2017), high school students (Patall et al., 2018) and college (e.g., DoménechBetoret & Gómez Artiga, 2011). Moreover, experimental studies have validated the idea that well-satisfied needs result in more positive academic achievements (De Meyer et al., 2016; Hagger et al., 2009).

Gender

Examining gender differences regarding prosocial development is accounted for in this study as well as in terms of our study variables. One of the most often researched correlates of prosocial behavior is gender (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998). Consistently, research indicates that women exhibit greater prosociality than men beginning in early childhood (e.g., Baillargeon et al., 2011; Malti et al., 2007) through adolescence and emerging adulthood (e.g., Caprara et al., 2012; Carlo et al., 2015; Gungordu & Hernandez-Reif, 2022). Women are socialized to be more helpful and nurturing than men; thus, women show prosocial behaviors more often than men (e.g., Eagly & Crowley, 1986; Eisenberg et al., 2006). According to traditional male ideals, expressing emotion, intimacy, vulnerability, or pain is considered feminine. Traditionally, men may be taught to shy away from emotional connections or displays, reflecting lower levels of prosocial activity as a result (Hine & Leman, 2013), although this may be changing.

The Current Study

Building on empirical and theoretical foundations, the current study aimed to examine the relationships between basic psychological needs, empathy, and prosocial behavior in emerging adulthood. Specifically, it assessed how basic psychological needs—particularly relatedness—along with empathy, gender, and academic achievement (GPA), predict prosocial behavior through multiple pathways.

According to Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), the satisfaction of the need for relatedness—the sense of forming meaningful social bonds and belonging—is a key driver of motivated behavior. Research suggests that when individuals feel connected to others, they are more likely to engage in prosocial actions (Moller et al., 2010; Pavey et al., 2011). In this study, we hypothesized that relatedness satisfaction would facilitate the relationship between empathy and prosocial behavior. That is, when emerging adults feel a strong sense of connection and belonging, they may be more motivated to act in ways that benefit others. Satisfying the need for relatedness may not only foster empathy but also increase the likelihood of engaging in helping behaviors that reinforce this connection.

Despite extensive research on prosocial behavior in childhood and adolescence, there is limited understanding of these processes during emerging adulthood—a distinct developmental stage characterized by identity exploration, autonomy, and evolving social relationships (Arnett, 2007). Moreover, while Self-Determination Theory emphasizes the role of relatedness in promoting prosocial behavior, few studies have empirically tested this proposition within an emerging adult population.

This study addresses these gaps by integrating concepts from Self-Determination Theory to explore whether relatedness satisfaction mediates the relationship between empathy and prosocial behavior in emerging adulthood. Additionally, we examine how demographic factors such as gender and GPA contribute to prosocial behavior, offering a more nuanced understanding of its development during this critical life stage.

By clarifying these motivational pathways, the findings of this study contribute to the advancement of Self-Determination Theory and offer practical insights for educational institutions. Specifically, the results may inform programs aimed at fostering empathy, social connectedness, and prosocial engagement among college students, with potential benefits for individual well-being and campus communities.

Methodology

Procedure

Participants were drawn from a large public university in the southeastern United States who were registered in courses in Spring 2022. A stratified sampling approach was used to recruit students from a diverse range of departments and academic levels, ensuring broad representation across majors and years. Instructors of large-enrollment courses were contacted, and participation was solicited via university email systems and classroom announcements. Prior to beginning the study, approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) was obtained, followed by the participants providing online consent documentation. Participants received extra course credit in their college course for completing the study, which was conducted using online self-report questionnaires.

Sample Description

The total sample consisted of 889 (593 females, 269 males) emerging adults (age M = 19.92, SD = 1.39; range: 18-30 years). Many of the participants were female, White, first-born, US citizen, with above a 3.5 grade point average (GPA), and with one sibling (See Table 1).

Table 1. Demographic Descriptive Statistics of Participants

Table 1. Continued

Note. N=889

Instruments

Participants were given a simple demographic questionnaire that asked about their age, gender, race, ethnicity, citizenship, class standing, GPA, number of siblings, and birth order. They also completed standardized scales on empathy, satisfaction of the psychological needs, and prosocial behavior:

The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1983): The IRI is a self-report scale that measures affective and cognitive empathy (Chlopan et al., 1985) and consists of four subscales: perspective-taking (PT), empathic concern (EC), personal distress (PD), and fantasy scale (FS). In the current study, FS and PD scores were not examined because in the literature they have weak relationships with empathy components (Cliffordson, 2001, 2002). PT (e.g., “I try to look at everybody’s side of a disagreement before I make a decision”) and EC (e.g., “I am often quite touched by things that I see happen”) were used to represent cognitive and affective empathy, respectively, since these subscales traditionally have been relevantly linked to empathy (e.g., Alterman et al., 2003). The participants rated the IRI via a 5-point Likert-type scale (1= Does Not Describe Me Well to 5 = Describes Me Very Well). In the original scale, the internal consistency of the IRI had alpha coefficients ranging between .71 and .77, and acceptable test-retest reliability (Davis, 1983, 2018). In the current study, Cronbach's α reached .73 for PT and .72 for EC.

The Basic Need Satisfaction and FrustrationScales (Chen et al., 2015): The scale includes 12 items (4 items per need) measuring satisfaction of each of the SDT’s three needs (e.g. ‘‘I feel my choices express who I really am’’ for autonomy, ‘‘I feelcapable at what I do’’ for competence, and ‘‘I feel connected with people who care for me, and for whom I care’’ for relatedness) evaluated on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1= not at all true to 7 = very true). Reliabilities based on Cronbach's α of the subscales in the US sample are: autonomy α = .81, competence α = .88, and relatedness α = .83 (Chen et al., 2015). In the current study, Cronbach's α was found to be .77 for autonomy, .89 for competence, and .86 for relatedness.

Prosocial Behavior Scale (Caprara et al., 2005):The scale evaluates the level of helping, sharing, taking care of others’ needs, and empathizing with others’ feelings on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = never/almost never true; 5 = almost always/always true) and it has 16 items (e.g., “I try to help others”). The reliability was measured in two different time points (T1 and T2) and was found as .95 at T1 and .95 at T2 in the original study. The psychometric properties of the prosociality scale have also been cross-gender and cross-nationally validated on large samples of respondents (Luengo Kanacri et al., 2021). In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha reached .91.

Data Analysis

Path analysis can be used to study a system and its relationships of observed variables within that system. Direct and indirect links between variables can be assumed by examining the effects of one variable on another while determining whether both variables are the result of another cause or causes (Karadag, 2012). Survey data for the current study were entered into Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0 and a path analysis was used to examine a hypothesized model using the Analysis of Moments Structure software AMOS (Version 26.0). (Arbuckle, 2011).

Adequate sample size is required to assess significance in path analysis (Garson, 2013). R.B. Kline (1998) suggests using 10 times as many cases as parameters (or ideally 20 times). Haenlein and Kaplan (2004) cited literature suggesting that a minimum sample size of 100 or 200 cases should be reached. The sample size (N = 889) of the study met and exceeded the acceptable range under various criteria.

The maximum likelihood estimation method was performed after checking for normality. Accordingly, all scales were found to have acceptable skewness and kurtosis values—less than 3 and 10, respectively (R.B. Kline, 2011). Internal reliability was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha, with the expectation that satisfactory reliability values exceed .70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). For the current study, the reliability coefficients across all the scales ranged from the satisfactory to high inter-reliability level of .72 to .91 (see Table 2).

Table 2.Descriptive Statistics for the Scales

Note. N=889

Results

To assess the model fit, the χ2 goodness of fit statistic and fit indices were used (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Other fit indexes were also performed to help in the evaluation of model fit since the χ2 statistic is based on comparing the covariance structure of the appropriate theoretical model with the observed covariance structure. These common fit indices consist of the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), comparative fit index (CFI),Goodness-of-fit statistic (GFI) and the adjusted goodness-of-fit statistic (AGFI). RMSEA is acceptable or good if < .05, reasonable if t < .08, and average if < .10, while the SRMR are expected to stay below < .010 (T. J. B. Kline, 2005). The values of the CFI must be >.90 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Similarly, the values of the GFI and AGFI must be > .90 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993). All these rules were applied and met in the current study to test the hypothesized model.

In the standardized path model(see Figure 1. Standardized Estimates on the Path Model of the Hypothesized Relationships Between the Dependent Variable Perspective Taking, Empathic Concern, Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness, and Prosocial Behavior with Control Variables [i.e., Gender and GPA]), the exogenous variables included empathic concern (EC), perspective taking (PT), autonomy, competence, gender, and GPA. The endogenous variables were prosocial behavior and relatedness. The model yielded the following fit indices: the chi-square value is χ2: 12.429, p < .0001, N=889. RMSEA (0.077), SRMR (0.013), CFI (0.995), GFI (0.997) and AGFI (0.938) values met the criteria for acceptable model fit in model A. Results suggest the model fit is sufficient. Even if a model shows a good fit, this does not necessarily mean it is the best.

Figure 1.Standardized Estimates on the Path Model of the Hypothesized Relationships Between the Dependent Variable Perspective Taking, Empathic Concern, Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness, and Prosocial Behavior with Control Variables (i.e., Gender and GPA)

The model shows that emerging adults’ competence, autonomy, perspective taking (PT), and empathic concern (EC), are influenced by their relatedness ability, which leads to more prosocial behavior. In other words, relatedness plays a facilitator role between prosocial behavior and autonomy, competence, PT, and EC. The model also shows that perspective taking, empathic concern, autonomy, and competence directly related to prosocial behavior with the coefficients being .16, .46, .12, .08 respectively. In view of the results obtained through the proposed path model, the direct and indirect associations between the variable and prosocial behavior indicate that the EC scale is the one that has the greatest role as a predictor of prosocial behavior scores. The control variable with the best explanatory contribution is the gender variable, with a direct effect of .12, although its effect on prosocial behavior is not very important due to its low contribution. The covariance between the control variables and the exogenous variables was positive, and ultimately affected the model by reflecting a moderate increase in the total variance of the exogenous variables over the endogenous variables. Also, all variables in the scale were significantly and positively related to each other except for the non-significant relationship between PT and GPA (See Table 3).

Table 3.Correlations Among the Variables

Note. N=889, **p<.001 *p<.05

Discussion

Prosociality, defined as the ability to act in a way that benefits others, is a crucial characteristic for emerging adults in meeting their personal needs and completing developmental objectives. This stage of life is a time for individuals to experiment with and create their own worldviews, lifestyles, careers, and interpersonal relationships (Nowakowska, 2020). In the current study, we examined how empathy skills, motivation, and some demographics (i.e., gender and academic achievement) of emerging adults play a role in their prosocial behavior. Consistent with Self-Determination Theory, relatedness need satisfaction is conceptualized as a motivational antecedent of prosocial behavior (Ryan & Deci, 2000). When individuals feel socially connected, they are more likely to engage in behaviors that maintain and enhance these connections, including helping and caregiving (Martela & Ryan, 2015). Therefore, in the present model, relatedness satisfaction is posited as a mediator linking empathy to prosocial behavior. Thus, the results suggest that the satisfaction of relating or connecting to others as a psychological need can be a motivator for helping behavior. Because helping is fundamentally interpersonal, it is connected to relatedness by increasing closeness to others, good responses from others, and cohesion or intimacy (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010). In other words, the human capacity to help is necessary for the continuation of mutually beneficial relationships; suggesting that helping others is a natural way for people to feel connected to one another (Caprara & Steca, 2005). Longitudinal research of volunteers provided the first evidence to support this view, demonstrating that the positive impacts of helping others on well-being were mediated by the subjective sense of mattering, which includes feeling important, recognized, and relied upon (Piliavin & Siegl, 2007). Similarly, Pavey et al. (2011) suggested that among these basic psychological needs, relatedness needs satisfaction is especially significant for encouraging prosocial behavior due to the increased sense of connectedness to others, which supports our findings. These findings reinforce the utility of Self-Determination Theory as a guiding framework for understanding prosocial development in emerging adulthood. Empathy, particularly affective empathy, may serve as a psychological mechanism through which relatedness satisfaction is both expressed and fulfilled. Moreover, the connection between GPA and prosocial behavior may reflect the role of competence need satisfaction—students who experience success and mastery in academic settings may feel more capable of acting prosocially. Thus, all three needs outlined in SDT—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—converge in this study to predict prosocial behavior, providing a holistic view of motivational influences in this developmental stage.

The results also indicated that affective empathy greatly predicts prosocial behavior in emerging adulthood. The affective and cognitive elements of empathy may have distinct roles in prosocial behavior (Decety & Jackson, 2004). The fundamental driving force behind prosocial behavior is the affective component of empathy, which is the subjective motivation that results from being able to identify the other person's emotional condition (Terfassa, 2014). College students with higher levels of affective empathy are more likely to act in prosocial ways toward their family, friends, and strangers (Fraser et al., 2012). The ability of young people to understand the ideas and emotions of others has been associated with their helpful behaviors (Eisenberg et al., 2002) as well as other forms of prosocial behavior (e.g., anonymous, altruistic, emotional, etc., Carlo et al., 2012).

While GPA and gender were significantly related to prosocial behavior, these associations may be partly driven by social desirability biases or cultural expectations around gender roles. Men, for instance, may underreport prosocial behaviors due to norms discouraging emotional expressiveness (Kimmel, 1994), while women may feel more pressure to report socially favorable behaviors. Although there is no gender difference in natal levels of empathetic response in the early years of childhood (Eisenberg et al., 2006), children's development of prosocial attitudes is progressively influenced by the culture that is socializing them (Nielson et al., 2017). Few studies showed that students with higher GPAs perform higher prosocial behavior (e.g., Lyons & Bandura, 2017;Shirin, 2020). The current study confirmed this result in an emerging adult sample. As academic achievement can be accepted as a sign of enhanced cognitive abilities, emerging adults with higher GPAs may be capable of greater empathic problem solving (van Rijsewijk et al., 2016), such as showing various prosocial behaviors when there is someone in need or someone has a problem.

The current study supports previous research indicating relationships between autonomy and empathy (Roth, 2008), autonomy and prosocial behavior (Gagné, 2003; Grant, 2008; Weinstein & Ryan, 2010), or empathy and prosocial behavior (Batson, 1991; Greitemeyer, 2009). The current research furthers our understanding and goes beyond prior empirical evidence by demonstrating the relationships between empathy and helping or autonomy and helping. Also found was that the satisfaction of the psychological need for relatedness can elicit greater motivation to help, and therefore, may be one method for encouraging sustained helping behavior in college students. A key implication is that prosocial behavior among emerging adults appears to be strongly influenced by the integrated satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, suggesting that supporting these needs may provide a practical pathway for promoting sustainable prosocial engagement. Prosociality may be crucial in helping people realize their needs and developmental goals during the period of emerging adulthood (Nowakowska, 2020).

Empathy and basic psychological needs are intertwined in a mutually reinforcing relationship. Meeting basic psychological needs can relate to empathy, while engaging in empathetic behaviors can contribute to the fulfillment of these needs, ultimately promoting psychological well-being and positive social interactions. The results of this study suggest that one reason why affective empathy and cognitive empathy are strong predictors of prosocial behavior is due to their association with greater satisfaction of the need for relatedness to help.

Conclusion

This study highlights the vital role of empathy and psychological need satisfaction—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—in fostering prosocial behavior among emerging adults. Affective empathy emerged as a key predictor, reinforcing the link between emotional engagement and helping behavior. Additionally, higher GPA and female participants showed greater prosocial tendencies. Findings support self-determination theory, emphasizing that social connection motivates prosocial actions, benefiting both individuals and society.

Beyond the immediate findings, this research contributes to a broader theoretical understanding of how motivational and emotional factors interact to shape social behaviors during a formative life stage. These results underscore the potential of educational and developmental interventions that prioritize need-supportive environments—such as programs that encourage empathetic engagement, student autonomy, and relational connectedness—in fostering prosocial dispositions. Policymakers and educators may leverage these insights to design curricula and campus initiatives that cultivate empathy and social responsibility as core competencies.

From an educational psychology perspective, the study offers practical implications for supporting student development within academic settings. Understanding the role of empathy and basic psychological need satisfaction can help educators implement strategies that not only support students’ emotional well-being but also promote collaborative learning environments and socially responsible classroom behavior. For instance, classroom practices that emphasize peer mentoring, cooperative learning, and autonomy-supportive instruction can strengthen students' intrinsic motivation to help others, thereby enhancing both academic engagement and social-emotional learning outcomes.

While this research provides valuable insights, future studies with diverse and longitudinal approaches are needed to explore causal pathways and to refine strategies that promote sustained empathy and prosociality throughout emerging adulthood.

Recommendations

To offer a comprehensive perspective on research impact, it is suggested that researchers might use qualitative approaches, such as interviews or focus groups. Future research could also use behavioral measures or alternative scales that distinguish helping behavior from empathic disposition.Additionally, future longitudinal research may focus on the causality in the association. Studies indicate that an enriched environment in childhood (McCauley & McCullough, 2022), heritability (Gregory et al.,2009; Lewis & Bates, 2011), social desirability, and self-improvement (Eisenberg et al., 1989; Kahneman & Knetsch, 1992) influence adult prosociality. Future studies might consider those factors by evaluating prosocial behavior development. Callister and Plante (2017) indicated that females and social sciences students have more tendency to display prosocial behavior. Thus, learning environment should be taken into account on evaluating emerging adults’ prosocial attitudes in future studies. Fostering prosocial behaviors can promote inclusive campus climates, which are associated with higher student retention and academic success (Strayhorn, 2012). Also, prosocial skills are increasingly recognized as essential for effective teamwork, leadership, and organizational citizenship behaviors in the workplace (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Enhancing these skills during emerging adulthood may facilitate smoother transitions into professional roles. Lastly, future studies should include more participants to increase the generalizability of the results, particularly with respect to culture, ethnicity and/or race. Specifically, future research is needed to replicate the study with a racially and ethnically diverse group of participants.

Limitations

The present study has several limitations.First, self-report measures might not be completely accurate due to personal bias. Specifically, social desirability bias may have influenced participants’ responses, particularly on measures of empathy and prosocial behavior. Although standardized instruments were used, self-reported tendencies to appear socially favorable can inflate correlations between constructs that are socially valued. Future research would benefit from incorporating multi-method approaches, including behavioral observations or peer-report data, to triangulate findings.

Second, the study only reports the association between variables. While these associations are theoretically coherent, causality cannot be inferred from the cross-sectional design. For example, it is possible that students who are already more prosocial are more likely to report higher GPA or greater need satisfaction. Future longitudinal or experimental studies could better determine whether fulfilling psychological needs actively promotes empathic engagement and prosocial action—or whether the reverse pattern also holds.

Lastly, delays in citation patterns and the insufficient representation of emerging research areas may impact the comprehensiveness of literature trends. These limitations should be considered when interpreting the results and their implications for future research and practice.

Ethic Statement

All subjects gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of XXXX (Approval number: XXXX).

Acknowledgments

We thank all study participants.

Conflict of Interest

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding Statement

No funding received.

Generative AI Statement

The authors used ChatGPT 4.0 to enhance the text’s flow. After using this AI tool, we reviewed and verified the final version of our work. The authors assume full responsibility for the data, methodology, and content of this publication.

Authorship Contribution Statement

Gungordu: conceptualization, methodology, statistical analysis, resources, data curation, writing original draft, discussion, and review. Walker: supervision, conceptualization, methodology, discussion, review, editing and final approval. Hernandez-Reif: supervision, conceptualization, methodology, discussion, review, editing and final approval.