Introduction

In 2008, the International Federation for Home Economics (IFHE), in its basic IFHE Position Statement, defined the home economics discipline as the area that includes research and professional areas of disciplines that deal with the lives of individuals, families, and communities, focused on reaching optimal and sustainable existence. Home economics deals with the quality of life in a family, sustainable living, and the rational use of available resources. Magee et al. (2010) discuss home economics as a discourse between the financial aspects of consumption and activities in a person’s household, influenced by the cultural setting and changes inside their home and family, while Bohm (2023) highlights its role in providing education on food, meals, and sustainability, bridging household resource management with broader societal and environmental considerations. Hira (2013) showed the home economics discipline, arguing that home and family are the key building blocks of society, significant in a person’s development of norms, values, and beliefs that are reflected in their behavior. In this way, the discipline benefits individuals, families, and society (Haapaniemi et al., 2022). Sproles and Sproles (1995) emphasize the importance of home economics as a multidisciplinary domain, since contemporary problems and daily challenges have more than one aspect to consider; they require a person to have varied knowledge and skills to solve them successfully.

Although home economics education plays a crucial role in developing life skills and supporting sustainable living, there is a lack of empirical research identifying which knowledge and skills are viewed as essential by stakeholders – particularly teachers, pupils, and parents. The existing literature tends to focus on theoretical or policy-level frameworks, offering limited guidance for curriculum development rooted in real-world perspectives (McGregor, 2022). In Slovenia, the gap is especially relevant in the context of the ongoing national curriculum reform (National Education Institute Slovenia, 2022), which also includes a revised home economics curriculum. This highlights the importance of investigating stakeholder perspectives in this area. The present study addresses the existing research gap by identifying which knowledge and skills teachers, pupils, and parents believe pupils should acquire in home economics classes by the end of elementary education. Specifically, the study explores the needs and perspectives of these key stakeholders regarding the importance and utility of home economics education and literacy, thus providing an empirical foundation for curriculum renewal.

The research focused on the following research questions:

RQ1. What knowledge and skills should pupils acquire in the subject of home economics according to the perspectives of teachers, pupils, and parents?

RQ2. Which areas of home economics should be included in the curriculum based on the perceived needs of teachers, pupils, and parents?

Literature Review

The Multidisciplinary Nature of Home Economics

With its multidisciplinary character, home economics integrates the content of various disciplines through an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach. The content (disciplinary bases) which studies of home economics draw from is dependent upon the context but might include food, nutrition and health; textiles and clothing; shelter and housing; consumerism and consumer science; household management; design and technology; food science and hospitality; human development and family studies; education and community services, and much more (IFHE,n.d.). Home economics education and literacy teaching are of key importance in acquiring the knowledge and skills necessary for quality everyday functioning and living (Haapaniemi et al., 2022; Roldan, 2017). Renold (2008) emphasizes the purpose of home economics education and literacy, which is to empower individuals and families for their well-being, adopt life-long learning attitudes, and enable future generations to manage global social challenges. Home economics education enables people to develop their personal and professional skills, as well as basic life skills that children may not learn in their home environment, as some studies have shown(Slater, 2013; Turkki, 2005).

Home Economics Curriculum Development and Global Trends

Home economics education enables pupils not only to acquire knowledge but also to use and transfer it to theoretical and practical situations (Beinert et al., 2021; Granberg et al., 2017). Dixon (2017) points out that the subject enables pupils to critically perceive the world around them. At the same time, she stresses that in home economics classes, pupils acquire knowledge and skills not studied in other subjects. Home economics education and literacy teaching are important for the development of pupils’ skills related to the areas of economics, consumption, textiles, nutrition, healthy lifestyles, and health promotion (Lichtenstein & Ludwig, 2010).

Pendergast (2012) emphasizes that, at the global level, home economics education is based on uniform theoretical and philosophical premises. The premises are published in the fundamental document, IFHE (n.d.), which presents the basic content areas of the home economics discipline. These refer to food, nutrition, healthy lifestyle, dietetics, textiles and clothing, home, consumption, personal and family economics, progress of persons and families, and design and technology. In many countries, education systems are actively working to update and adapt the home economics curriculum to meet contemporary demands (Lind et al., 2009; Ma & Pendergast, 2011; Pace et al., 2015; Pridāne, 2017; Tuomisto et al., 2017). As Taarand Palojoki (2022)emphasise, this curriculum actualization focuses on addressing the needs of modern society, aligning with Mølstad’s (2015) observation that curricula often reflect societal values and priorities. This broad goal of “preparing for life” brings forth the essential question of which knowledge and skills are most necessary in the 21st century (Taar & Palojoki, 2022).

Home Economics Education in the Slovenian School Context

In Slovenian elementary school education, pupils are supposed to acquire knowledge about healthy lifestyles and sustainable forms of organizing their social and economic life, to develop responsibility for their health, abilities for functioning in society, life-long learning and continuous personal growth, and to develop capacities to preserve the natural environment (Kalin et al., 2011). The Slovenian nine-year compulsory school curriculum includes the home economics subject, which is compulsory for 5th graders (children aged 10 years) and 6th graders (children aged 11 years), representing the basis of home economics education. Within this subject, pupils acquire knowledge and skills pertaining to the natural and social sciences. The subject includes four different teaching modules: Economics, Textile and Clothing, Living and the Environment, and Nutrition. It is taught for 35 hours in the 5th grade. Pupils learn about the topics of Economics and Textile and Clothing modules. In the 6th grade, 52.5 hours are dedicated to home economics education, where pupils learn about Living and the Environment, and Nutrition. Home economics education stimulates pupils to reflect on contemporary problems at the individual, family, or societal levels. Pupils acquire knowledge and skills for sustainable natural and social resources necessary to meet basic living needs (Programosnovnašola.Gospodinjstvo.Učninačrt[Elementary school program, Home Economics, Curriculum], 2011).

Methodology

Research Design

The needs and views on the importance and utility of home economics and literacy teaching were identified using the Delphi methodology approach in two research rounds. The method is characterized by the selection of the participants connected to the research problem. Their profiles are more important than their number. Collecting information is thus based on the views of groups of individuals connected to the research problem, as their views reflect situations in the current time and place (Hsu & Sandford, 2007; Krigsholm et al., 2017). Data collection according to the Delphi method takes place in a varied number of successive rounds (Hai et al., 2023; Wester & Borders, 2014) and is aimed at obtaining consensus among those included in the research or at obtaining information on the problems researched (Hasson et al., 2000; Krigsholmet al., 2017), which was the purpose of this research. Studies by Moynihan et al. (2015) and Ormshaw et al. (2016) have also demonstrated the method's usefulness for curriculum development and determining educational effectiveness. Given these characteristics, the Delphi method, which was conducted in two rounds, has been deemed appropriate to achieve the goal of this research. A visual representation of the Delphi process used in this study is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Visual Representation of the Delphi Process

Participants

The number of respondents included in the Delphi research is smaller than in the traditional survey (Hsu & Sandford, 2007). As a rule, the sample size consists of between 10 and 100 respondents (Nasa et al., 2021). Considering its size, the sample is comparable to the sample in the research by Johnston et al. (2014). Home economics operates in four areas: the academic area, the everyday living area, the curriculum area, and the societal area (IFHE, n.d.).The sample to establish the needs for home economics and literacy teaching included groups of respondents typical of the areas in which the home economics discipline operated. The research included teachers as representatives of the academic area, home economics education experts, and experts in teaching home economics content who have interdisciplinary connections. The curricular segment was represented by 9th-grade pupils, since they had participated in home economics education and literacy teaching during their schooling. Parents as representatives of the societal area and the area of everyday living were included in order to perceive the needs of home economics contents in actual life situations and the benefits of home economics education. The first round of the study involved 30 home economics teachers, 34 9th-grade pupils, and 34 parents of 9th-graders. The same participants were included in both research rounds. Not all participants responded in the second research round. Thus, the second research round sample included 16 teachers, 33 9th-graders, and 29 parents of 9th-graders. Table 1 presents a detailed sample composition of the first and the second rounds.

Table 1. Characteristics of the Research Sample

Instruments

Two separate questionnaires were used as the primary research instruments of the two rounds of the Delphi study. In the first round, a questionnaire with open-ended questions was developed to explore the needs and perspectives regarding the importance and utility of home economics education and literacy teaching. In line with research findings (Almaia et al., 2022; Sosnytsky et al., 2021), this research instrument was developed using open-ended questions, which were respected in the Delphi studies. The questions were created based on the defined objectives of the study and the research questions. Content validity of the questionnaire was verified by three home economics education experts.

The results of the first round served as the basis for constructing the second-round questionnaire. According to Shawahna et al. (2016), the Delphi method is characterized by repeated consultation with the same group of respondents, which was applied here. The second questionnaire consisted of statements to which participants responded on a Likert scale (Wester & Borders, 2014). This method of data collection was selected for our research. Following established practices in educational research (Nagari et al., 2023), the content validity of the second-round questionnaire was ensured by expert evaluation. Cronbach’s alpha of 45 items was .955, which provides a sufficient level of reliability for the questionnaire (Hair et al.,2015).

Data Collection

The data collection process was conducted in two rounds. In the first round, pupils, parents, and teachers filled in the questionnaire with open-ended questions. The survey was conducted using 1KA, an online survey tool developed by the Centre for Social Informatics at the University of Ljubljana. The platform supports the design, distribution, and analysis of online questionnaires.

Based on the results of the first round, a second-round questionnaire was created and distributed to the same participants. The second-round questionnaire, consisting of Likert-scale statements, was administered using the 1KA online survey tool.

Ethical principles of research and personal data protection were respected during data collection, processing, and presentation in both rounds of the Delphi study. Participants took part in the survey voluntarily and anonymously.

Data Analysis

To analyze the open-ended questions from the first round of the Delphi study, qualitative data analysis was used. First, the material was edited, then an inductive approach was used for coding. Codes, formulated on the basis of home economics terminology, were identified through an analysis of responses to open-ended survey questions. To ensure the adequacy of the codes, coding was carried out by two independent researchers. Any discrepancies were resolved through a negotiated consensus process, in line with established qualitative research procedures (MacPhail et al.,2015). After reaching a consensus, different codes were classified into several sub-categories depending on their similarities and differences. Different sub-categories were further classified into main categories.

The data from the second round of the Delphi study were analyzed using the SPSS statistical program. Descriptive statistics were performed for numerical variables, including mean (M), median (Mdn), and standard deviation (SD). Non-parametric tests were employed for statistical comparisons: the Kruskal-Wallis test for comparing the mean values of multiple independent samples, and the Mann-Whitney U test for comparing the mean values of two independent samples. The significance level wasp≤ .05.

Findings/Results

Results of the First Round of the Delphi Study

Qualitative data analysis was conducted on the open-ended responses from the first round of the Delphi study, leading to the identification of codes and main categories. The results that reflect the perspectives of students, parents, and teachers on what knowledge and skills the pupils should acquire in home economics are presented in Table 2. The results from the first round of the Delphi study served as the basis for developing the questionnaire for the second round.

Table 2. Knowledge and Skills Pupils Should Acquire in Home Economics According to the Perspectives of Teachers, Students, and Parents

The respondents’ answers were analyzed to identify eight areas, the knowledge and skills of which should be acquired by pupils in home economics classes. The economic and financial area, environmental area, and consumption, textiles, nutrition, health and well-being, social skills, family, and home were identified (Table 2). Respondents emphasize the importance of the economic and financial area where pupils should be familiar with basic financial services, personal budget management, and responsible money management, including their plans of spending and purchasing within available means. In the environmental and consumption areas, the importance of conserving resources, separating waste efficiently, and developing a responsible attitude towards the environment is highlighted. Pupils should learn to reduce their consumption of electricity, water, and other resources, use environmentally friendly cleaning products, and understand sustainable waste management and recycling practices. Textiles were identified as an important area of home economics, implying that pupils should learn textile maintenance, basic sewing and garment repair, and manual skills such as crocheting, knitting,and embroidery. The importance of knowing how to wash and choose the right clothes for different occasions was emphasized. In the area of nutrition, classes should provide pupils with the knowledge and skills necessary for planning diets, taking into account available time and money, food choices, and an understanding of the nutrients and quality of foods. They should also learn about food preparation and healthy eating. It is important for them to recognize nutritional values indicated on food packaging, to compare products, and to select healthier options. Pupils should know how to prepare simple dishes, such as eggs, pasta,or a simple sauce, while following the instructions in recipes without using too many ingredients, thus helping to increase sustainability and reduce food waste. The importance of good table manners, both at home and in restaurants, is stressed, including proper table setting, using cutlery,and respecting eating customs. Pupils should learn to behave appropriately in different social situations, which promotes their personal and social development. The study results highlighted the need to acquire knowledge and skills in the areas of health and well-being. The importance of first aid is emphasized, with respondents highlighting both theoretical and practical training. Pupils should learn basic first aid skills such as handling fractures, dressing wounds, and dealing with emergencies such as nosebleeds or minor injuries, as well as learn how to act independently in such situations. In addition to this, the respondents emphasized the importance of learning about personal hygiene, organizing daily activities, and maintaining a healthy lifestyle. The respondents believe that pupils in home economics classes should learn to understand the importance of the family and the role of an individual within it, while being aware of the values important to family dynamics. In the area of home, the respondents perceived a need for specific skills, including the use of kitchen utensils and appliances, the washing machine, dishwasher, and the performance of various household and gardening tasks. It was emphasized that pupils should learn basic household tasks, such as cleaning and washing dishes by hand, and understand how to use household appliances correctly and safely. The need to learn about growing food in the garden, especially growing spices and vegetables, was highlighted. The social skills area emphasised the need to develop skills of communication, cooperation, and teamwork. Particular emphasis was placed on resolving conflicts, developing responsibility, and adapting to different social situations (Table 2).

Results of the Second Round of the Delphi Study

In the second round, a quantitative analysis was conducted based on the results of the first round.It's 45 items described the knowledge and skills pupils should acquire in home economics classes. The formulated statements were evaluated by respondents using a five-point Likert scale of importance, where 1 = not important, 2 = less important, 3 = neither important nor unimportant, 4 = important, and 5 = very important.

Table 3.The Importance of Acquiring Specific Knowledge and Skills in Different Areas of Home Economics According to Teachers, Pupils, and Parents

M= Mean value (measured on a five-point Likert scale, where 1 = not important, 2 = less important, 3 = neither important nor unimportant, 4 = important, and 5 = very important)

Mean values for specific home economics knowledge and skills were generally high across all respondent groups (mostly >4.00 on a five-point Likert scale). Parents provided the highest ratings, particularly for personal hygiene (M= 4.69), waste management (M= 4.62), and basics of good manners (M= 4.62). Pupils’ ratings were more variable, with the lowest scores for choosing appropriate clothing for different occasions (M= 3.76), preparing food in the school kitchen (M= 3.76),and family roles (M= 3.73). Teachers consistently rated social and personal skills highly, notably basics of good manners (M= 4.69) and taking responsibility for one's own actions (M= 4.75). The results reflect a strong valuation of home economics knowledge and skills, with variations across respondent groups (Table 3).

Further on, the views expressed by the respondents were grouped into thematic categories and calculated as mean values of responses within specific areas of home economics. The composite variable values range from 1 to 5. Specifically, 4 items from the first round were categorized into the economic and financial area, 5 items into the environment and consumption area, 4 items into the textiles area, 15 items into the nutrition area, 4 items into the health and well-being area, 6 items into the social skills area, 1 item the family, and 6 items into the home area. Furthermore, descriptive statistics for the individual respondent groups – teachers, students, and parents – were provided. Additionally, the Kruskal-Wallis test and the Mann-Whitney U test were employed to analyze the differences in responses between these groups (Table 4).

Table 4. The Importance of Acquiring Knowledge and Skills in Different Areas of Home Economics According to Teachers, Pupils, and Parents

Respondent groups: 1 = Parents; 2 = Pupils; 3 = Teachers; M= Mean value (measured on a five-point Likert scale, where 1 = not important, 2 = less important, 3 = neither important nor unimportant, 4 = important, and 5 = very important)

The results in Table 4indicate distinct patterns in how different respondent groups perceive the importance of home economics content areas. Overall, parents tended to assign higher importance to most areas compared to both pupils and teachers. This was particularly evident in the areas of environment and consumption, health and well-being, social skills, and family, where statistically significant differences emerged.

The Kruskal-Wallis test revealed significant differences among the three groups in four areas: environment and consumption (χ²= 290.5,p= .007), health and well-being (χ²= 270.0,p= .003), social skills (χ²= 223.5,p< .001), and family (χ²= 237.5,p< .001). In contrast, no statistically significant differences were found in the areas of economic and financial content, textiles, nutrition, or home-related topics, indicating a shared valuation of these areas across all stakeholder groups. Follow-up pairwise comparisons using the Mann-Whitney U test revealed that parents consistently rated several areas as significantly more important than pupils, particularly environment and consumption, health and well-being, social skills, and family. Teachers also placed greater emphasis than pupils on the importance of health and well-being, social skills, and family, reflecting a perspective shared with parents regarding life-preparation skills in the curriculum. Notably, no significant differences emerged between teachers and parents, indicating a relatively aligned view between these two stakeholder groups.

These findings suggest that pupils may undervalue certain content areas that teachers and parents perceive as critical for daily life and long-term well-being, such as family relations and social competencies. This divergence highlights the importance of incorporating multiple perspectives in curriculum renewal to ensure relevance, engagement, and long-term applicability.

Discussion

The data obtained from the first and second research questions highlight the essential knowledge and skills pupils should acquire in home economics education, as identified by participants in the first round of the Delphi study. These findings confirm that the identified content areas encompass various aspects of home economics, consistent with the discipline’s theoretical and philosophical foundations (IFHE,n.d.). In line with the IFHE competency framework, areas such as nutrition, textiles, financial literacy, and sustainability align with key competency domains of responsible household management, sustainable development, and individual and family well-being. These competencies should be understood as interconnected competency domains that support broader educational goals of equity, empowerment, and lifelong learning (Dewhurst & Pendergast, 2011). The study’s multidimensional approach reflects the recommendations by Haapaniemi et al. (2022) for curriculum development that is responsive to societal changes in the Nordic-Baltic region. Additionally, Bohm (2023) highlights how cultural sustainability can act as a hidden curriculum, reinforcing the broader aims of home economics. Thus, the content areas identified not only possess practical relevance but also reinforce the philosophical pillars of the discipline. The study confirms the importance of content areas such as financial literacy, sustainability, health, and nutrition. Moving beyond simple reiteration, these findings have significant implications for curriculum renewal. For instance, enhancing financial literacy aligns with European Union priorities, emphasizing socio-economic inclusion and reducing educational disadvantage (European Commission, 2020). Home economics thus holds the potential to promote educational equity by equipping all pupils with essential life skills and competencies, regardless of their background. Specifically, respondents emphasized the economic and financial area, noting the need to teach basic financial services, bank transfers, payments, and spending planning. These findings support prior research highlighting the importance of financial literacy (Agnew & Cameron‐Agnew, 2015; Gale Smith, 2015; Pendergast &Deagon, 2021) and are reinforced by Slovenian studies (Erjavšek, 2021; Erjavšek et al., 2021). Curriculum renewal should therefore embed financial education as a basic cross-curricular competence, supported by clear learning outcomes and assessment criteria (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2017). In environment and consumption areas, respondents indicated that pupils should develop skills in resource conservation, waste management, and responsible behavior, consistent with sustainability-oriented home economics (IFHE,n.d). Sustainability education must be embedded across the curriculum as a guiding principle, requiring pedagogical approaches emphasizing participatory learning, critical reflection, and systems thinking (Rieckmann, 2018). The textile area remains relevant, given the daily life presence of textiles (McGregor, 2010; Renwick, 2016), alongside the growing need for textile literacy (Erjavšek et al., 2021; Harmon, 2024; Weber et al., 2017; Zaman &LovšinKozina, 2021). Nutritional knowledge and skills also remain vital (Beinert et al., 2021; Fife et al., 2020; McCloat et al., 2017), with pupils needing competencies to plan meals within time and financial limits, select and prepare food, and understand nutrient content and quality. These findings support integrating health promotion strategies into curriculum planning, as advocated by the World Health Organization (2013), with emphasis on fostering health literacy from early education onwards. Respondents further emphasized the importance of health, first aid, and education on healthy lifestyles, confirming previous research (Beinert et al., 2021; Wong, 2023). Home economics’ fundamental philosophy closely relates to family well-being (Deagon, 2021), and finding emphasis on pupils’ need to understand family roles and structures, aiding socio-emotional skill development. Household management content supports practical preparation for independent living (Paas&Palojoki, 2019). While the results confirm the relevance of specific content areas, their implications warrant deeper consideration within curriculum policy and renewal. A responsive home economics curriculum could address the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2021) call for inclusive, relevant, and future-oriented education that meets global challenges such as inequality, digital transformation, and climate change. National curriculum developers might utilize the Delphi method to ensure stakeholder-informed curriculum renewal, enabling content to reflect diverse societal needs.

The second Delphi round reaffirmed the importance of acquiring knowledge and skills across all initially identified areas. Differences in perspectives among teachers, pupils, and parents reflect their distinct roles and experiences: teachers’ curricular expertise, pupils’ lived realities, and parents’ family insights. Variation in content area ratings may also result from differing familiarity with educational terminology, particularly among parents. These differences highlight how stakeholders’ roles and knowledge bases shape their interpretations and priorities, an important factor when analyzing diverse input. This triangulation of perspectives is especially valuable for designing curricula that meet the diverse needs of learners and ensure contextual relevance. As Haile and Mekonnen (2024) found in their study on stakeholder involvement, engaging multiple stakeholders enhances curriculum responsiveness to varied needs and contexts. Such engagement promotes inclusivity and reinforces democratic legitimacy and practical relevance.

This study of stakeholder views reveals important societal needs, underscoring the necessity to align home economics curricula with contemporary challenges. To fulfil its central mission of improving quality of life for individuals, families, and communities (IFHE,n.d.), curricula must remain responsive to ongoing social, technological, and environmental changes. This requires regular updates and adaptability to maintain relevance across diverse learner groups. The Delphi method effectively identified content areas stakeholders consider critical for daily life and future readiness. Therefore, the findings can inform concrete curriculum renewal by promoting essential competencies, such as financial literacy, health literacy, sustainability, and socio-emotional skills,across all educational levels. Policymakers should consider institutionalizing home economics as a core subject aligned with future societal needs. This requires curriculum reform alongside targeted teacher education and resource allocation to ensure successful implementation.

Conclusion

This study identified key content areas that stakeholders consider essential in-home economics education: financial literacy, nutrition, health and well-being, environmental responsibility, textile literacy, and social and practical life skills. Respondents emphasized that pupils should acquire competencies relevant to everyday life, including planning budgets, preparing nutritious meals, maintaining personal and family health, performing household tasks, making sustainable consumer choices, and understanding the properties, care, and responsible use of textiles. These findings reaffirm the multidimensional character of home economics, as defined in the IFHE (n.d.), and highlight its alignment with responsible household management, sustainable development, and individual and family well-being. The study also revealed differences in how teachers, pupils, and parents prioritize specific areas, likely reflecting their differing roles, everyday experiences, and familiarity with pedagogical discourse. Recognising such perspective-based variation is crucial when designing curricula that aim to meet the needs of diverse stakeholders. Although the study was conducted in Slovenia, the identified content areas correspond closely with international frameworks and debates, suggesting their broader relevance. Given the rapid societal, technological, and environmental changes, it is essential that home economics curricula remain responsive, adaptable, and aligned with real-life competencies that promote quality of life for individuals, families, and the broader society.

Recommendations

This research provides a comprehensive insight into the updating of home economics education in response to the evolving needs of society. Based on the study results, pupils should acquire knowledge and skills in the areas of home economics, including economic and financial aspects, environmental and consumption issues, textiles, nutrition, health and well-being, family, home, and social skills, emphasizing their importance in everyday life and sustainable living. It is recommended that future curriculum updates maintain the alignment with IFHE guidelines while being adapted to cultural and social contexts. Future research should incorporate insights from policymakers and industry experts to more precisely identify the essential 21st-century skills required within home economics education, with a particular emphasis on those that align with the evolving demands of the labor market.

Limitations

We acknowledge the limitations of our research. These limitations pertain to the implementation of the study using the Delphi methodological approach. Challenges emerged during the data collection phase of the second round of the Delphi study. The participant sample differed between the first and second rounds, as not all respondents from the first round chose to participate in the second round. Furthermore, the absence of academic experts in the field of home economics may have limited the depth and theoretical grounding of the findings, as their perspectives could have provided a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. Despite these challenges, the findings complement and enhance existing studies in the field of home economics education, particularly in relation to the actualization of curricula to address contemporary needs.

Ethics Statements

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Commission of the Faculty of Education of the University of Ljubljana. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Generative AI Statement

The authors acknowledge that no AI tool was used for the purpose of this paper. We, as the authors, take full responsibility for the content of our published work.

Authorship Contribution Statement

Erjavšek: Conceptualization, design, data acquisition, analysis, writing, drafting manuscript, critical revision. Kostanjevec: Writing, editing/reviewing, supervision.